《中国人的性格》是美国传教士阿瑟·史密斯（明恩溥）基于1872年赴华传教期间的社会观察撰写的著作，首版英文名《Chinese Characteristics》于19世纪末问世，。作者在华生活逾五十年，书中融合人类学视角与传教士立场，记录了晚清民众的性格特征与文化形态。
全书以27个主题章节剖析中国人行为模式，包含“保全面子”“省吃俭用”等生活哲学，以及“漠视精确”“因循守旧”等社会现象。通过对比西方工业文明，着重探讨东方特有的生存韧性，如环境适应力与疼痛耐受性。书中案例多源自山东乡村生活经历，涉及衣食住行、孝悌观念等主题，部分结论因宗教立场存在视角争议。该著作开创西方研究中国国民性先河，被译成多国文字，成为近代中西文化互鉴的重要文本。
第二十六章 多元信仰（下）
在中国，可以看到许多朝圣者每走一步、磕一个头。他们要在这种沉闷而单调的朝圣历程中花掉很长时间。如果问他们为什么要这样，他们会说，有许多人的信仰是假的，信仰者有必要以这种苦行的方式表达他们的虔诚。无论怎样评价这种例外，我们仍会毫不犹豫地断言，他们彼此间缺乏信义，在信仰方面表现得更突出，对北京附近一座庙里和尚的描绘，简直是描绘阴险狡诈方面的杰作。人，长了一张什么样的脸，就过一种什么样的生活。
与其他国家的非基督教徒一样，中国人把自己的神想像得和自己一样，因为有不少神灵是他们的同胞。笔者曾看到过一张以菩萨名义贴出的告示，它晓谕世人，人类逐渐变得邪恶的消息已上达天庭，玉帝获悉，大为震怒，大声怒斥他的神臣，因为他们没有强迫人类从善。中国人认为，人们周围到处都是神灵精怪，他们一样可以贿赂、奉承、容易欺骗。中国人讨价还价时，很想占对方的便宜，对他所祈祷的神，如果可能，他同样想占便宜，他可以通过捐钱修庙换取好运，但假如他捐二百五十个铜钱，却可能在功德簿上记一千！神灵只能从簿子上知道他捐了多少。修庙时，每尊神像都会用红纸遮住眼睛，这样，他就不能看到周围混乱的场面和不敬的举止了，如果庙位于村外，常常会成为盗贼分赃的窝点，因此，人们就把庙门封上，让神灵独自待在里面，去和宇宙尽情地交流吧。
年底，灶君要回到天上，汇报他所在家庭的行为，但他的嘴巴早已被抹上粘糖，不能说出不好的事情了。这个风俗，人们都很熟悉，它是中国人智胜天界神仙的典型例子。一个男孩子有时会取女孩的名字，这可以使愚蠢的妖怪认为他真是女孩，从而放过他。巴伯先生谈到，在四川，女婴被溺死后，人们总是大烧纸钱，供她的鬼魂使用，以此来安抚她们。送子菩萨的庙和其他的庙不同，进去的一般都是妇女。很多庙会为她们提供泥做的小男孩，它们有时由菩萨抱着，有时像货物一样摆在架子上。妇女烧香拜佛时，会把泥人的小鸡鸡掰下来吃掉，以确保生男孩，这已成为一种习惯做法。庙里一般有许多这样的小泥人，是特地为去庙里进香的妇女准备的。不过，只能悄悄地偷走，不能公开拿走。假如果真生了男孩，这位妇女就要在上次偷走泥人的地方，再放上两个，以示感谢，中国的水手认为，中国海上可怕的风暴是恶毒的妖怪制造的，它们躺在水底，静静地等待着，一旦有船的动静，马上兴风作浪。风暴十分猛烈时，据说水手会做一个和他们船一模一样的纸船。等到最危急的关头，放入海中，这样可以欺骗狂怒的水怪，使真船脱身。
霍乱之类的瘟疫发生时，中国常在六、七月份庆祝新年，帝国的大部分地区都盛行这一风俗。人们认为，这样做可以欺骗瘟神，它会很惊讶地发现，原来自己算错了年历，然后就离开了。这也可以使人们很容易理解，为什么“秋二月”实际指的是“永远”。人们还有一种欺骗神的做法，就是爬到供桌底下，将头从一个专门的圆孔中伸出来。神会以为人真的把头献给了自己，便赐以相应的好运。而那人将头一缩，就回家享受将来的好运去了。
有一次，我们偶然发现，一个村庄想把神像挪走，将庙改成学校。村民们本指望能从佛像的肚子里掏出些“银子”，补充开支。可这些头脑简单的乡下人根本不了解佛和塑佛像的人，结果发现那宝贵的心脏只是一团锡块。不过，确有些僧人曾把财宝藏在佛像里，使庙里遭了抢劫，佛像要么被搬走，要么被当场打碎。但是这帮粗鲁的家伙仍会相信神。据说，有个县官在审理一桩与僧人有关的案子时，牵涉到庙里的佛祖，县官便将它召到堂上，令其跪下，可它不跪，愤怒的县官命人把它重打五百大板，结果打成了一堆泥土，并以缺席判其败诉。
每逢土地干枯，不能播种时，人们便向雨神求雨，希望它大施神威，普降甘霖。假如求了很长时间，仍无结果，村民经常会将神像抬到最热的地方，让它亲自去看看，而不是只守在庙里听人说。人们也经常不掩饰对神的不满，有一句流行的俗语为证：“三，四月不修屋，六、七月骂涝神。”
我们听说中国的一个大城市，遭到了一种严重的传染病的侵袭。人们判断，这是当地的一个神在作怪。于是，他们就联合起来，俨然对付一个现实的恶霸，把神像打成一堆碎土。我们没有证据保证这一描述的真实性，只是听说而已，不过，这己足够了，因为整个过程很符合中国人的神灵观念。
我们列举的这些实例，很容易使不了解中国人性格的人认为，中国完全不可能有宗教。确实有人这样直截了当地断言。梅杜斯先生在他的《中国人及其信仰》一书中，批判了胡克先生的概括，认为那是对“人类高尚生活的毫无根据的诬蔑”。他坦然承认，中国人既不关心纯粹的神学争论，也不关心把争论结果当成信条的民族的行为。但他断然否认中国“缺乏对不朽的渴望，缺乏对美好、伟大事物的由衷赞叹，缺乏对伟大、善良的人物的持久、毫不动摇的热爱，缺乏向往神圣、高尚事物的灵魂”。托马斯·韦德爵士曾对中国和中国人有过长期了解，对于“中国有无宗教”这一普通的问题，他应有资格作出权威性的回答。最近，他发表了如下观点：“如果宗教是超越于道德之外的东西，那么，我拒绝承认中国人有宗教。他们确实有祭拜活动，或更确切地说，是一种混合的祭拜活动，但没有信仰：他们随时都可能嘲笑本民族那些形形色色的偶像崇拜，但他们绝不敢漠然置之。”
我们觉得没有必要探讨这个有趣而又不容易回答的问题，详细讨论并不困难，可是，不能保证会有结果。我们有比讨论更有效的、更现实的途径来解决这个问题。道教和佛教对中国人影响很大，然而中国人既不是道士，也不是和尚。他们是孔夫子的信徒，无论给他们的信仰增加点什么，或减少点什么，他们仍不会改变。我们应该努力探寻儒教到底为什么不能成为中国人必需的宗教。为此，我们打算引用一个著名的中国问题专家的话，他的研究是不能忽略的。
恩斯特·费伯博士《孔子思想体系类编》一书的最后，有一节名为“儒教的不足与失误”，它指出，儒教中有关人与人之间关系的精彩论述，在基督教的《启示录》中也得到回应。下面的二十四条即是引自其中，我们偶尔加上了几句评论。
1. “儒教自认与现存的神没有关系。”
2. “人的灵魂与肉体之间没有区别，无论从生理的角度，还是从生物学的角度，都没有对人进行明确的界定。”
在人的灵魂方面缺少明确的说法，这很令学习儒家学说的外国学生迷惑不解。对于广大的普通百姓来说，这种教诲的最终结果是使他们除了在肉体的生命力方面之外，根本不了解什么是人的灵魂。人死之后，传统的说法是，他的“灵魂”升天，“肉体”化为泥土。但时常还出现一种更简单的理论，认为“灵魂”或生命的气息消融在空气中，肉体化为尘埃，这一观念与真正的儒教的唯物主义不可知论完全一致。问中国人，他有三个灵魂，一个灵魂，还是没有灵魂？几乎难以引起他的兴趣。对他来说，这种问题就像问他，人体的哪块肌肉带动了咀嚼一样。只要咀嚼舒服，他才不管是哪块肌肉呢。同样，只要他有好胃口，还可以养家糊口，他也不去管什么“灵魂”，除非它与米价有关。
3. “没有解释为什么有的人天生就像一个圣徒，其他人却是普通人。”
4.“每个人都能成为圣人，却不能解释每个人都没有成为圣人的事实。”
5. “儒教对罪恶的态度坚决而认真，但除了道德上的惩戒外，没提任何惩罚措施。”
6. “对罪孽和邪恶缺少深刻的认识。”
7. “因此，儒教发现无法解释死亡。”
8.“儒教中不存在一个中介，使人的原初本性与自身的理想重归和谐。”
9. “祈祷及其道德力量与儒教无缘。”
10. “尽管一再强调信任，现实中却很少鼓励作为信任前提的诚实，而且恰恰相反。”
11.“认为一夫多妻制天经地义。”
12. “赞同多神论。”
13. “相信算命、看日子，预兆、做梦和其他的幻像（如凤凰等）。”
14. “伦理道德和其他的仪式搅在一起，成为一种十足的专制形式。”
15. “孔子对待古代制度的态度反复无常。”
16. “断言某些美妙的音乐会对道德产生荒谬的影响。”
17. “夸大楷模的力量。孔子本人就是最好的例证。”
如果像儒教所宣称的，君为器，民为水，器圆则水圆，器方则水方——似乎就难以解释为什么中国的伟人没有对他的研究者产生强有力的影响。如果楷模确实像儒教所说，有那么大的影响力，为什么现实中恰恰相反，看到的都是苍白无力的现象？对“圣人”的神化（第20条将提到）正反映了第8条所言的中介的缺失。无论“圣人”多贤明，他也只能提些好的建议。假如人们对他的建议置若罔闻，他也无可奈何，最多以后不提而已。
我们觉得，孔子的一句话非常富有启发性。他说：“不愤不启，不悱不发，举一隅而不以三隅反，则不复也。”这话是针对圣贤们说的，很精彩，可决不是预防针，只能算一剂补药。眼睁睁地看着旅行者受盗贼抢劫，却大谈加入互助旅行团的好处，说他之所以头破血流，就是因为没有加入该团。而受伤者对此全都知晓，可他现在大量失血，早已昏晕过去。他最需要的不是反思过去违背了常规，而是油、酒和可以供他尽量恢复的避难所，而且首先要有一个聪明、乐于助人的朋友。对于肉体有残疾的人，儒教或许可以做点什么，可如果是道德或精神方面的，它也无能为力。
18. “儒教教义中，社会生活由暴政控制；女人是奴隶；孩子没权力，只能绝对服从长辈。”
19. “绝对孝顺父母，把他们奉若神灵。”
20. “孔子思想体系的最终结果是崇拜天才，例如人的神化。”
21. “除了没有伦理价值的祖先崇拜，不存在关于不朽的明确观念。”
22. “现世现报，无形中鼓励了利己主义，不是贪婪，就是野心勃勃。”
23.“中国历史表明，儒教不能使人们获得新生，努力追求一种更高尚更神圣的生活，现实生活中，儒教己与道教、佛教相融合。”
24. “整个儒教对死者、生者都不能给予安慰。”
对于中国各种不同形式的信仰的融合，我们已经作了论述。中国人自己也早已认识到，无论儒教还是其他宗教，都不能“使他们获得新生，努力追求一种更高尚更神圣的生活”。有一则传说鲜明地表现了这一点，传说的作者不详。
据说有一天，孔子、老子、如来佛三位圣人在永恒的神界相遇了，一致哀叹世风日下，人心不古，他们的教义在天朝上邦无人听取。经过一阵讨论，共同认为，他们的教义本身虽然精妙绝伦，令人赞叹，但没有一个永恒的楷模引导人性朝这个方向发展。于是，一致决定下凡人间，物色一位合适的人选。说完，他们就分头到人间去了。孔子首先遇到了一位老人，老人看上去令人肃然起敬。见到孔子来了，老人却端坐不动，只是请孔子坐下，和孔子谈起古圣人的训诫和今天人们对它的忽视。交谈中，老人表现出对古代圣言了如指掌，其渊博的学识和敏锐的判断力令孔子大为惊叹。谈了一阵后，孔子告辞，老人仍是端坐不动，并不起身相送。看到老子和如来佛一无所获，孔子就讲述了自己的奇遇，并建议他们也轮流去拜访那位端坐的哲人，看他是否像熟悉孔子思想一样，熟悉他们的思想。老子先去，令他兴奋的是，老人对道教教义也十分熟悉，仿佛他就是道教的创始人，其口才和热情也堪为楷模。同样，如来佛也获得了令人惊喜的成功，不过，令老子和如来佛惊奇的是，老人对他们也非常尊敬，但也同样都没起身相送。
三位圣人又相聚了，他们一致认为，这位举止罕见的老人正是他们的理想中人，不仅精通“三大宗教”教义，而且还能论证“事实上三教归一”。于是，他们一起又找到老人，向他解释了初次拜访的目的，希望老人能重振三教，将它们付诸实践。老人静静地坐着，听他们讲完，然后答道：“尊敬的诸位圣人，你们的善行如日月齐光，你们的计划重比泰山，令人赞叹。可不幸的是，你们选错了完成这一伟大使命的人。诚然，我曾拜读过诸位的大作，对它们的崇高与一致性也略知一二，可你们也许没注意到，我的上身是人体，下身却是石头。我擅长从各个方面论述人类的责任，却由于我自身的不幸，永远不能将它们付诸实践。”三位圣人听了，长叹一声，就从地面上消失了。从此以后，再也不企图寻找可以传播三大宗教的凡人了。
我们常常将目前中国与一世纪的罗马相比，事实上，目前中国的道德状况要远远高于罗马帝国，可二者有一共同之处，即它们的宗教信仰都濒临崩溃的边缘。我们也可以像吉本评价罗马那样，来评价中国：对普通百姓来说，所有的宗教都一样真实；对哲学家来说，所有的宗教都一样虚伪；对政客来说，所有的宗教都一样有用。中国皇帝，也和罗马皇帝一样，“既是高级教士，又是无神论者，和至高无上的神。”造成中华帝国这一现状的就是那融合了多神论与泛神论的儒教。
对无神论是否正确的问题漠然置之，要比纯粹的无神论更可怕。中国存在多神论与无神论两种迥然不同的信仰，可很多受过教育的中国人却感到二者没什么矛盾之处。最令人悲哀的是，中国人从本性上对最深奥的宗教真理是绝对冷漠的，比如，他们接受没有灵魂的肉体，接受没有心灵的灵魂，接受无条件的和谐，接受没有上帝的宇宙。
英文原版：
XXVI. POLYTHEISM，PANTHEISM，ATHEISM
There are many Chinese worshippers who are to be seen making a prostration at every step,sometimes occupying very long periods of time in going on tedious and difficult pilgrim- ages.'When asked what is their motive for submitting to these austerities,they will tell us that as there is so much false worship of the gods,it is necessary for worshippers to demon- strate by these laborious means that their hearts are sincere. Whatever may be said in regard to such exceptional instances, we have no hesitation in affirming that all that has been al- ready said of the absence of sincerity among the Chinese,in their relations to one another,applies with even greater force to much of their worship.The photograph of a group of priests belonging to a temple near Peking is a perfect masterpiece in the representation of serpentine cunning. Men who have such faces live lives to correspond with their faces.
It is as true of the Chinese as it has been of other nations in heathenism,that they have conceived of their gods as alto- gether such as they are themselves,and not without reason, for many of the gods are the countrymen of those who wor- ship them.The writer once saw a proclamation posted in the name of the goddess of mercy,informing the world that repre- sentations had been made at the court of heaven to the effect that mankind were waxing very vicious. The"Pearly Em- peror”of the divinities,upon hearing this,was very angry,and in a loud tone reviled all the subordinate gods because they had failed to reform mankind by exhortation!Human beings are supposed to be surrounded by a cloud of spirits,powerful for evil,but subject to bribes,flattery,cajolery,and liable to be cheated.A Chinese is anxious to take advantage of the man with whom he makes a bargain,and he is not less anx- ious to take advantage—if he can—of the god with whom he makes a bargain—in other words,the god to whom he prays. Perhaps he purchases felicity by subscribing towards the re- pair of a temple,but he not improbably has his subscription of two hundred and fifty cash registered as a thousand.The god will take the account as it stands.While the temple is in process of repair a piece of red paper is perhaps pasted over the eyes of each god,that he may not see the confusion by which he is surrounded and which is not considered respectful. If the temple is situated at the outskirts of a village,and is in too frequent use by thieves as a place in which to divide their booty,the door may be almost or even altogether bricked up, and the god left to communicate with the universe as best he can.
The familiar case of the kitchen-god,who ascends to heaven at the end of the year to make his report of the behaviour of the family,but whose lips are first smeared with glutinous candy to prevent his reporting the bad deeds which he has seen,is a typical instance of a Chinese outwitting his celestial superiors.In the same way a boy is sometimes called by a girl's name to make the unintelligent evil spirits think that he is a girl,in order to secure his lease of life.Mr.Baber speaks of the murder of female infants in Szechuan,whose spirits are subsequently appeased by mock money,which is burned,that it may be conveyed to them for their expenses! The temples to the goddess who bestows children,unlike most other tem- ples,are often frequented by women.Some of these temples are provided with many little clay images of male children, some in the arms of their patron goddess,and others disposed like goods on a shelf.It is the practice of Chinese women, on visiting these temples,to break off the parts which distinguish the sex of the child and eat them,so as to insure the birth of a son. In case there are large numbers of little im- ages,as just mentioned,it is with a view to the accommoda- tion of the women who frequent the temple,each of whom will take an image,but it must be stolen and not openly carried off.In case the desired child is born,the woman is expected to show her gratitude by returning two other images in the place of that which she stole! Chinese sailors suppose that the dreaded typhoons of the China seas are caused by malig- nant spirits,which lie in wait to catch the junks as they navi- gate the dangerous waters.When the storm reaches a pitch of extreme violence,it is said that it is the habit of the mari- ners to have a paper junk made of the exact pattern of their own,and complete in all its details.This paper funk is then cast into the sea at the point of maximum disturbance,in order that the angry water-spirits may be deceived into think- ing that this is the vessel of which they are in quest,and thus allow the real one to escape!
The custom prevails in many parts of China,upon occasion of the spread of some fatal epidemic like cholera,at the be- ginning of the sixth or seventh moon to hold a New-Year's celebration.This is with a view to deceiving the god of the pestilence,who will be surprised to find that he is wrong in his calculations as to the time of year,and will depart,allow- ing the plague to cease.This practice is so well understood that the phrase“autumnal second month”is understood to be a periphrasis for“never.”Another method of hoodwink- ing a divinity is for a man to creep under a table upon which are placed offerings,and to put his head through a round hole made for that purpose.The god will think that this is a genuine case of offering a man's head in sacrifice,and will act accordingly.The man will withdraw his head,and enjoy his well-earned felicity.
In one case of which we happened to be cognisant,where a village decided to remove the gods from a temple and use it for a schoolhouse,they had hoped to pay a considerable pro- portion of the expenses of the alterations by the“silver”to be extracted from the hearts of the late gods.But the simple- minded rustics were not familiar with the ways of Chinese gods and of those who make them,who are like unto them; for when they came to search for the precious hearts they were not found right,but consisted simply of lumps of pew- ter! Cases no doubt occur in which the priests do conceal treasures in the images of their gods,and they are matched by corresponding cases in which the temples are robbed,and the gods either carried off bodily or pulverised on the spot. Violent treatment of Chinese divinities on the part of those who might be expected to worship them,is by no means un- known. We have heard of an instance in which a District Magistrate tried a case which involved a priest,and by im- plication the Buddha which was the occupant of the temple. This god was summoned to appear before the magistrate and told to kneel,which he failed to do,whereupon the magistrate ordered him to be beaten five hundred blows,by which time the god was reduced to a heap of dust,and judgment was pronounced against him by default.
Nearly every year petitions are incessantly put up to the rain-god to exert his powers on the parched earth,which can- not be planted until there is a rainfall.After prayers have been long continued with no result,it is common for the villagers to administer a little wholesome correction by drag- ging the image of the god of war out of his temple and setting him down in the hottest place to be found,that he may know what the condition of the atmosphere really is at first hand, and not by hearsay only.The habit of exhibiting undisguised dissatisfaction with the behaviour of the gods is referred to in the current saying,"If you do not mend the roof of your house in the third or fourth moon,you will be reviling the god of floods in the fifth moon or the sixth.”
We have heard of an instance in which the people of a large city in China,having been visited by an epidemic of great severity,decided that this was owing to the malevolent influence of a particular divinity of the district. Banding themselves together precisely as if the god were a living bully, they set upon him and reduced him to his original elements. Of the accuracy of this narrative we have no proofs except its currency,but that appears to be sufficient in itself.The whole proceeding is not inconsistent with the Chinese notions about gods and spirits.
In view of facts such as those to which we have been directing the reader's attention,it might be most natural for one who was not familiar with the Chinese character,to draw the inference that it cannot be possible that the Chinese have any religion at all.This statement has indeed been often made in explicit language.In Mr.Meadows'work on "The Chinese and Their Rebellions,"he quotes some of the too sweeping generalisations of M.Huc only to denounce them,affirming them to be“baseless calumny of the higher life of a great portion of the human race."Mr.Meadows is ready enough to admit that the Chinese are not attracted either to the bare results of centuries of doctrinal disputes or to the conduct of the nations which accept those results as their creed,but emphatically denies the assertion that the Chinese have“no longing for immortality,no cordial admiration of what is good and great,no unswerving and unshrinking devotion to those who have been good and great,no craving, no yearning of the soul to reverence something high and holy.” Sir Thomas Wade,on the other hand,whose long familiarity with China and the Chinese might be supposed to entitle him to speak with authority on so plain a question as whether the Chinese have or have not a religion,has recently published his opinion as follows:“If religion is held to mean more than mere ethics,I deny that the Chinese have a religion.They have indeed a cult,or rather a mixture of cults,but no creed; innumerable varieties of puerile idolatry,at which they are ready enough to laugh,but which they dare not disregard.”
Into the interesting and by no means easily answered question here raised we do not feel required to enter. It would be easy to discuss it at great length,but we are not certain that any light would be thrown upon it.In our view there is a practical method of approaching the matter,which will serve our purpose much better than abstract discussion.Taoism and Buddhism have greatly affected the Chinese,but the Chinese are not Taoists as such,neither are they Buddhists. They are Confucianists,and whatever may be added to their faith,or whatever may be taken away by the other systems of thought,the Chinese always remain Confucianists. We shall close by endeavouring to show in what respects Confucianism comes short of being a religion such as the Chinese ought to have.In order to do this,we shall quote the language of a distinguished Chinese scholar,whose conclusions cannot be lightly set aside.
At the end of his"Systematical Digest of the Doctrines of Confucius,"Dr.Ernst Faber devotes a section to The Defects and Errors of Confucianism,which are set forth,while at the same time it is acknowledged that there is in Confucianism much that is excellent concerning the relations of man,and many points in which the doctrines of Christian revelation are almost echoed. We quote the four-and-twenty points specified,adding here and there a few words of comment.
1.“Confucianism recognises no relation to a living god.”
2.“There is no distinction made between the human soul and the body,nor is there any clear definition of man,either from a physical or from a physiological point of view.”
The absence of any clear doctrine as to the soul of man is very perplexing to the foreign student of Confucianism.The ultimate outcome of its teaching,in the case of many of the common people,is that they know nothing about any soul at all,except in the sense of animal vitality.When a man dies, there is classical authority for the statement that his“soul” goes upwards towards heaven,and his“animal soul”goes into the earth.But a simpler theory is that so constantly advanced,and which is entirely harmonious with the agnostic materialism of the true Confucianist,that“the soul”or breath dissolves into the air,and the flesh into the dust. It is frequently quite impossible to interest a Chinese in the question whether he has three souls,one soul,or no soul at all.To him the elucidation of such a matter is invested with the same kind and degree of interest which he would feel in learning which particular muscles of the body produce the movement of the organ concerned in eating.As long as the process is allowed to go on with comfort,he does not care in the smallest degree by what name the anatomist designates the muscular fibres which assist the result.In like manner,as long as the Chinese has enough to do to look after the interest of his digestive apparatus,and that of those who are dependent upon him,he is very likely to care nothing either about his"souls"(if he has any)or about theirs,unless it can be shown that the matter is in some way connected with the price of grain.
3."There is no explanation given why it is that some men are born as saints,others as ordinary mortals.”
4.“All men are said to possess the disposition and strength necessary for the attainment of moral perfection,but the contrast with the actual state remains unexplained.”
5.“There is wanting in Confucianism a decided and serious tone in its treatment of the doctrine of sin,for,with the exception of moral retribution in social life,it mentions no punishment for sin.”
6.“Confucianism is generally devoid of a deeper insight into sin and evil.”
7.“Confucianism finds it therefore impossible to explain death.”
8.“Confucianism knows no mediator,none that could restore original nature in accordance with the ideal which man finds in himself.”
9.“Prayer and its ethical power find no place in the system of Confucius."
10."Though confidence is indeed frequently insisted upon, its presupposition,truthfulness in speaking,is never practically urged,but rather the reverse.”
11.“Polygamy is presupposed and tolerated.”
12.“Polytheism is sanctioned.”
13."Fortune-telling,choosing of days,omens,dreams,and other illusions(phænixes, etc.)are believed in."
14."Ethics are confounded with external ceremonies,and a precise despotic political form.”
15."The position which Confucius assumed towards ancient institutions is a capricious one.”
16."The assertion that certain musical melodies influence the morals of the people is ridiculous.”
17."The influence of mere good example is exaggerated, and Confucius himself proves it most of all.”
If it be true,as Confucian ethics claim,that the prince is the vessel as the people are the water;that when the cup is round the water will be round,and when the dish is flat the water will be flat--it seems hard to explain how the great men of China have not exerted a stronger influence in the way of modifying the character of those who study their lives.If example is really so powerful as Confucianists represent,how does it happen that as seen in its effects it is so comparatively inert? The virtual deification of the"superior man,"as mentioned below under No.20,is matched by the entire absence of any mediator,as already pointed out under No.8. No matter how"superior"the sage may be,he is obliged to confine himself to giving good advice.If the advice is not taken,he not only cannot help it,but there is no further advice given.
To us that has always appeared to be a singularly suggestive passage in which Confucius said:"I do not open up the truth to one who is not eager to get knowledge,nor help out any one who is not anxious to explain himself.When I have presented one corner of a subject to any one,and he cannot from it learn the other three,I do not repeat the lesson.”The advice which he gives is for superior men only.Such advice is excellent,but it is by no means a prophylactic.When it has failed to act as such,then what is wanted is a restorative.It is idle to stand over the traveller who,having fallen among thieves,is stripped and wounded,and to discourse to him of the importance of joining friendly caravans,of the unadvisa- bility of sustaining serious lesions of the tissues,by which much blood is likely to be lost and the nervous centres injured. The wounded man,already faint from loss of blood,knows all that;indeed,he knew it all the while. What he needs now is not retrospective lectures on the consequences of vio- lating natural laws,but oil,wine,a place of refuge for a pos- sible recovery,and above all,a wise and helpful friend.For the physically disabled,Confucianism may at times do some- thing;for the morally and spiritually wounded it does and can do nothing.
18.“In Confucianism the system of social life is tyranny. Women are slaves.Children have no rights in relation to their parents,whilst subjects are placed in the position of children with regard to their superiors.”
19.“Filial piety is exaggerated into deification of parents.”
20."The net result of Confucius'system,as drawn by him- self,is the worship of genius,i.e., deification of man."
21."There is,with the exception of ancestral worship,which is void of any true ethical value,no clear conception of the dogma of immortality.”
22.“All rewards are expected in this world,so that egotism is unconsciously fostered,and if not avarice at least ambition.”
23."The whole system of Confucianism offers no comfort to ordinary mortals,either in life or in death.”
24.“The history of China shows that Confucianism is in- capable of effecting for the people a new birth to a higher life and nobler efforts,and Confucianism is now in practical life quite alloyed with Shamanistic and Buddhistic ideas and practices.”
Of the strange intermixture of different forms of faith in China we have already spoken.That neither Confucianism nor either of its co-religions is capable of“effecting for the people a new birth to a higher life and nobler efforts”is well recognised by the Chinese themselves. This is strikingly shown in one of their fables,the literary authorship of which we have not ascertained.
According to this account,Confucius,Laotze,and Buddha met one day in the land of the Immortals,and were lamenting the fact that in those degenerate times their excellent doctrines did not seem to make any headway in the Central Empire. After prolonged discussion,it was agreed that the reason must be that while the doctrines themselves are recognised as admirable,human nature is inadequate to live up to them without a constant model. It was accordingly decided that each of the founders of these schools of instruction should materialise himself,go down to earth,and try to find some one who could do what it was so necessary to have done.This plan was at once carried into effect,and in process of time,while wandering about the earth,Confucius came on an old man of venerable appearance,who,however,did not rise at the ap- proach of the sage,but inviting the latter to be seated,en- gaged him in a conversation on the doctrines of antiquity and the degree to which they were at that time neglected and practised. In his discourse the old man showed such pro- found acquaintance with the tenets of the ancients,and dis- played such vast penetration of judgment,that Confucius was greatly delighted,and after a long interview retired.But even when the sage took his leave,the old man did not rise.
Having found Laotze and Buddha,who had been altogether unsuccessful in their search,Confucius related to them his adventure,and recommended that each of them should in turn visit the sitting philosopher,and ascertain whether he was as well versed in their doctrines as in those of Confucius. To his unmixed delight,Laotze found the old man to be almost as familiar with the tenets of Taoism as its founder, and a model of eloquence and fervour. Like Confucius, Laotze was struck by the fact that although maintaining a most respectful attitude,the old man did not rise from his place. It was now the turn of Buddha,who met with the same surprising and gratifying success.The old man still did not rise,but he exhibited an insight into the inner meaning of Buddhism such as not had been seen for ages.
When the three founders of religion met to consult,they were unanimously of the opinion that this rare and astonishing old man was the very one,not only to recommend each of the"three religions,"but also to demonstrate that"the three religions are really one."Accordingly they all three once more presented themselves before the old man in company with each other. They explained the object of their previous visits,and the lofty hopes which the old man's wisdom had excited,that through him all three religions might be revived, and at last reduced to practice.The old man,still seated, listened respectfully and attentively,and replied as follows: "Venerable sages,your benevolence is high as heaven and deep as the seas. Your plan is admirably profound in its wisdom. But you have made an unfortunate selection in the agent through whom you wish to accomplish this mighty re- form. It is true that I have looked into the books of Reason and of the Law,and into the Classics. It is also true that I have a partial perception of their sublimity and unity.But there is one circumstance of which you have not taken ac- count.Perhaps you are not aware of it.It is only from my waist upward that I am a man;below that point I am made of stone.My forte is to discuss the duties of men from all the various points of view,but I am so unfortunately constituted that I can never reduce any of them to practice.”Confucius, Laotze,and Buddha sighed deeply,and vanished from the earth,and since that day no effort has been made to find a mortal who is able to exhibit in his life the teachings of the three religions.
A comparison has often been made between the condition of China at the present time,and that of the Roman Empire during the first century of our era.That the moral state of China now is far higher than that of the Roman Empire then, scarcely admits of a rational doubt,but in China,as in Rome, religious faith has reached the point of decay.Of China it might be said,as Gibbon remarked of Rome,that to the com- mon people all religions are equally true,to the philosopher all are equally false,and to the magistrate all are equally use- ful. Of the Emperor of China,as of the Roman Emperor,it might be affirmed that he is“at once a high-priest,an atheist, and a god”! To such a state has Confucianism,mixed with polytheism and superstition,conducted the Empire. There is something which is worse than pure atheism,and that is entire indifference as to whether atheism is true.In China polytheism and atheism are but opposite facets of the same die,and are more or less consciously held for true by multitudes of educated Chinese,and with no sense of contradiction. Its absolute indifference to the profoundest spiritual truths in the nature of man is the most melancholy characteristic of the Chinese mind,its ready acceptance of a body without a soul,of a soul without a spirit, of a spirit without a life,of a cosmos without a cause,a Universe without a God.
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