《中国人的性格》是美国传教士阿瑟·史密斯(明恩溥)基于1872年赴华传教期间的社会观察撰写的著作,首版英文名《Chinese Characteristics》于19世纪末问世,。作者在华生活逾五十年,书中融合人类学视角与传教士立场,记录了晚清民众的性格特征与文化形态。
全书以27个主题章节剖析中国人行为模式,包含“保全面子”“省吃俭用”等生活哲学,以及“漠视精确”“因循守旧”等社会现象。通过对比西方工业文明,着重探讨东方特有的生存韧性,如环境适应力与疼痛耐受性。书中案例多源自山东乡村生活经历,涉及衣食住行、孝悌观念等主题,部分结论因宗教立场存在视角争议。该著作开创西方研究中国国民性先河,被译成多国文字,成为近代中西文化互鉴的重要文本。
第十四章 保守自大
与历史上任何一个民族相比,中国人都更确实地意识到,已经过去的远古时代,才是他们的黄金时代。中国古代的先贤,总是怀着无比崇敬的口吻,谈论着更古的“古人”。孔夫子曾表示,他不是一个创始人,而是一个继承者。他的使命就是把那些曾经的知识,包括长期被忽略的和被误解的学问,收集起来。正是他在完成这项事业中所表现出来的执著和非凡的才能,使他成为他这个民族受人尊崇的圣人。正因为孔子面对过去的态度以及他的学说品质,使得他一直被尊崇为圣贤之首。
按照儒家的道德学说,有好的君主,才有好的百姓,君主是盘子,百姓是盘中的水;只有盘子是圆的,水才是圆的;若盘子是方的,水也就是方的。根据这种理论,人们自然会相信,只有明君统治的时代,才有美德的盛行,一个目不识丁的苦力,有时候也会对我们讲起在“尧舜”的时代夜不闭户,因为没有盗贼,路上丢失了东西,最早看见失物的人会守候在那里,并与其他来人轮流守候,直到失主完好无损地领回失物。失主总能看到他的物品完好无损的搁在那儿。我们常常还可以听到这样的说法,就美德与正义而言,现在不如过去;在颠倒黑白方面而言,过去不如现在。
这种厚古薄今的倾向,并非只有中国或中国人才有,世界各国各地都同样有。只是,在中国这个天子之国,这种倾向似乎更为严重。人们相信,古代一切最美好的东西都保留在经典的文学作品中,而今天只是继承而已。因此,这些文学作品便被当做纯粹的偶像。传统的中国人视中国的古典作品大致上相当于正统的基督徒视希伯来语的《圣经》一样。他们认为其中囊括了过去所有的精华、最美的智慧以及从古到今都普遍适用的一切真理。虔诚的基督徒根本不相信《圣经》还需要增加些什么,而中国儒家子弟更不相信中国的经典还需要有所增补。基督徒与儒家子弟都认为,一切都尽善尽美,还想去谋求更好,那是不可能的。
正像许多虔诚的基督徒用《圣经》的“经文”来解释一些《圣经》作者从未想过的事一样,儒家学者也有这样的能力,也经常能从“古圣人”那里找到现代政府一切现行政策的依据,以及古代数学乃至现代科学的源头。
古代经典铸造了中华民族,也造就了中国的政府体制。无论这种政体的质地如何,至少它是经久耐用的。自我保存是每个人,同时也是民族的第一法则。一种统治方式,经过长时间的运用最后仍然适合,那么这种统治方式就可能被奉为经典。这样一种常见的统治方式就像是那些古代经典一样,也令人肃然起敬。如果某位研究中国历史的学者能够成功地对中国的政体为何形成今天的样子有清楚的了解并成功地予以解释,这或许将是一桩惊人的发现。如果这一过程可以得到揭示,我们想,这样一个问题就可以得到清晰的答案,即中国为何很少爆发那种其他民族所经常发生的席卷全国的政体革命。
曾有一个故事,说的是一位工匠砌了一堵石墙,墙有六英尺厚,却只有四英尺高。别人很奇怪他为何要把墙建成这样,问其原因。他回答说,这种墙若是被风吹倒,反而会更高!中国的政府根本不可能被风吹翻,因为它是一个立方体。当它翻倒时,只是换了个面,无论是外表还是内在本质,都与原来的一个样。这种过程的反复出现,使中国人懂得了其结果肯定是像猫无论从什么高度落下,都会四脚着地那样不会改变。于是,人们便开始相信当初设计、建造这一切的人具有无比的智慧,是一个天才。任何要求改良的建议都成了十足的异端邪说。结果是,古人拥有无可争议的权威,优于后人,后人自愧不如地劣于古人。
头脑里有了这些清楚的认识后,也就不难意识到,中国人为什么那么盲目固执地遵循过去的生活方式,其实是十分有道理的。中国人和古罗马人一样,习惯与道德是同一回事,因为它们同出一源,在内涵上也是一致的。对中国人来说,侵犯他们的风俗习惯就是侵犯了最神圣的领域。他们无需从最终的意义上理解这些风俗习惯,或者严格地说,从细枝末节起完全去理解它们。而只要像母熊保护它们的幼仔一样,出于本能地坚决予以维护。这种本能不只是中国人才有,它是人类所共有的本性。有一个值得重视的现象是,那种成千上万的人所乐意为之献身的信仰,却也是一种他们所不了解、也并不以这种教义来规范、约束他们生活的信仰。
中国的风俗习惯,正如中国的语言一样,我们并不知道它们是以何种方式形成和发展的。风俗习惯,如同人的言语,一旦形成,就很难加以改变。然而在中国,中国的风俗习惯与语言形成的条件是各不相同的。因此,我们会看到有各种令人眼花缭乱的风俗习惯,也就是俗话所谓的“十里不同俗”,同样如此,有些地区的人也会讲着令人莫名其妙的方言。风俗与方言一旦形成并固定下来,就会像成形的凝固石膏,你可以打碎它,但无法改变它。理论上来讲,肯定是这样。但实际上,理论也肯定会与事实有相当大的出入,以适应现实变化。因为,没有哪一种风俗习惯真的是永恒不变的,在某种新的条件下,变化总会悄悄发生的。
下面的事例最能说明问题。清政府建政之初,曾在中国汉人中推行削发蓄辫的发型。显然,改换发型就意味着俯首称臣。绝大多数的人极力反对这种改变,宁死不从。但满族人却坚持推行削发令,并以此作为忠诚于皇帝的标志。事实证明,中国人表现出他们能很好地适应这种削发方式。推行新的削发方式的结果,正如我们所看到的,今天的中国人最引以自豪的莫过于他们的辫子。当年,对清政府这一做法的仇恨痕迹只是残存于广东、福建本地人所用的头巾上了——当年人们用戴头巾来遮盖民族的耻辱。
佛教进入中国也经历过一番斗争。而一旦完全扎下根来,它就像中国土生土长的道教,拥有了不可取代的位置。
中国的风俗习惯从最初形成到今天的样子,很容易使人得出一个基本的假定,这就是:现存的就是合理的。一种长期形成的习惯就像是一种专制制度。无数人遵从习惯,但没有一个人知道这样做的缘由。他们的职责只是臣服,并且他们也臣服了。在中国的不同地区,对宗教的信仰程度也迥然相异,但有一点是可以肯定的,这就是成千上万做过“三教”所有仪式的人,他们根本不懂什么叫信仰,就像他们不懂埃及象形文字一样。若是问起他们所参加的某一宗教仪式的原因时,通常只有两种回答:第一,是认为与神灵沟通的各种方式都是从古人那里传下来的,肯定自有其牢靠的根据;第二,是认为既然“每个人”都这么尊崇,那么我也应该这么遵从。在中国,是机器带动齿轮,而不是齿轮转动机器。如果这种情况始终出现在每一个地方,那么,就可以说人们对于宗教习俗的遵从,不过是一种最为表面化、形式化的举动。
蒙古人有一个习惯,每一个拥有鼻烟的人,就会和他的朋友分享之。每个人都带有一个小烟盒,遇见朋友的时候,他就拿出来给对方吸烟。如果某个先生自己盒内的鼻烟已经吸完,他也还是要把烟盒递给朋友。他的朋友则假装着从中捏起一小撮,然后把盒子再送还给主人。如果客人把盒子看成是空的,那就有失“体统”,而假装在享用鼻烟,则会保全烟盒主人的“面子”。这一切都是按照既定的惯例。在许多重要的场合下,中国人也同样如此。珊瑚虫早已没有了生命,可珊瑚礁却留了下来,为了避免沉船,行船时就必须小心翼翼地按照既定的航线航行。
用固定不变的方式按照以往的方式行事,并非为中国人所特有。印度的苦力习惯地用头顶着东西进行搬运。他们在建筑铁路时运土也采用同样的方法。承包商为他们提供了一些独轮车,苦力们反而把独轮车也顶在头上。巴西的苦力搬运东西的方式也与印度苦力一样。一位住在巴西的外国绅士要用人去寄一封信,他惊奇地看着用人把信放在头顶上,再压上一块石头。思想过程的僵化导致行为模式的僵化,而这样的僵化对于中国人来说是司空见惯的。我们可以举出许多我们所熟悉的这种事例。最初教厨师做布丁时,打开第一个鸡蛋,就把它扔掉。后来,这个厨师每次做布丁,都把第一个鸡蛋打开然后扔掉。事实上,那次第一个鸡蛋不过是发现是一个坏鸡蛋而已。拿一件有补丁的旧衣服给中国的裁缝照样子去做一件新衣服。结果,得到的新衣服上也缝了一块补丁。说这样的故事并无意于夸大中国人的某种特性,但是,它们却是非常真实的事实。
每个对中国的风俗习惯有所了解的人,都能举出中国人因循守旧的例子。对我们来说,中国人的这种因循守旧的确难以理解。除非我们能对他们这种行为背后的公式有根本性理解。在南北大约绵延二十五个纬度的国家,整个国家的人们只按照同一个历法,在冬天穿上皮衣,夏天戴上草帽。这毫无疑问地表明,他们的祖先是神灵,能预知一切,若不是这样,那才怪呢。在有的地区,只有到了非常冷的冬天,要依靠烧炕来取暖。是否烧炕,要在历法的某一天之后。如果旅行者正巧赶上突如其来的“寒潮”,常常会发现,他们根本无法说服店主烧上炕,因为按照历法,烧炕的季节还没到!
我们都知道,中国的工匠不愿意采用新工艺,但是就保守程度而言,恐怕没有几个人能比得上这位外国人窑厂中的烧砖师傅。他和他的人被一座砖窑雇佣来烧砖,有一次,需要用到比当地所流行的砖更大一点的特殊方砖,外国老板下令烧制这种砖。实际上,烧这样的砖,只需要准备一个尺寸稍大的木模子就行了。可是结果是,需要用砖的时候,这样的砖却没烧制出来。把接受任务的烧砖师傅叫来质问他的失职,他却表示难以采用任何这样的创新,还给出了一个底气十足的理由是:天底下就没有这种模子!
无论对中国这个泱泱大国的未来是否有兴趣,每一个把宝押在中国的人们,都不可能不看到,中国人的因循守旧会影响到外国人与中国以及中国人的关系。十九世纪的最后二十五年,似乎注定是中国历史上的最为关键的时期。有大量很新的酒提供给中国人,但是,中国人只用各种很旧的酒囊用于装酒。由于中国人天生的保守,只有很少的人能够接受新酒。但即使有人能接受很少的那么点新酒,还需要用旧瓶来装。
中国人目前对西方各国的态度是一种拖延的态度。一方面,他们对一切新事务保持着小小的兴趣;另一方面,又根本不想放弃旧的。正像我们看到古老的土屋,本该早就归还给泥土了,但却用歪歪扭扭、粗粗糙糙的泥柱子支撑着,拖延着本不可避免的倒塌。已经过时的旧风俗习惯和旧宗教信仰仍然被支撑着,仍一如既往地履行那些泥柱子的职责。“旧的不去,新的不来。”我们时常耳闻的这句话倒是很有道理的。从旧事物到新事物的变化发展过程,可能会长时间受到阻挡,但一定条件下也可能会突然实现。
当初,把电报引进中国时,沿海某省的总督曾上书禀告皇上说,当地人对这桩新奇事物抱有很大的敌意,以至于连电线也架设不起来。但是,后来与法国人开战迫在眉睫时,不仅架设电线的性质基础发生了巨大的变化,省政府迅速建起了许多电报站。当局还发现,这些电报站受到了人们普遍的欢迎。
数年之前,许多人还相信“风水”,在中国修建铁路几乎是难以逾越的障碍。最早的铁路只是很短小的一截,只是在开平煤矿的出口处作为运煤通道而建的。由于铁路修筑要经过一大片中国人的墓地。为了给铁路让路,坟墓需要搬迁,这就像在英国和法国的情况是一样的。只要看一看被一分为二的墓地,就足以让人们相信,这是一场“风水”与蒸汽机的狭路相逢。然而,风水根本不是蒸汽机的对手。这条铁路的延伸后来被推迟了,但历史经验表明,这首先显然是由于财政问题才耽搁了,“风水”迷信对其造成的影响是相当的有限的。
在中国人处理重要的事务中,可以发现他们天生的顽固守旧的一面,又会发现他们打破惯例的另一方面。在中国,有这样的一个牢不可破的规矩,就是守孝道。一个大臣的父母去世了,他必须离职回家守孝。但是,宰相则不然。皇帝会不顾他一而再、再而三的“含泪”申诉,坚决“夺情”,要他在本该守孝的日子里继续尽心尽责于国家大事。在中国,最为根深蒂固的伦理是父为子纲,儿子必须永远遵从父亲。然而,在最近一次的皇位权力的变更中,由于皇位由旁系亲属所继承,而小皇帝的父亲仍健在。这样一来,小皇帝的父亲要么自杀,要么退休,永不参与政事。因此,光绪继承皇位之日,其父亲醇亲王就得辞官。醇亲王得病,其儿子,就是光绪皇帝,只能以探望下臣的名义多次探望其父亲。当时,采取了某种权宜之计,因为这位父亲一直到去世之日,都是儿子手下重要的官员。
如前所述,顽固保守的本能使得中国人过分地强调先生的重要性。但是正确地理解并谨慎利用中国人的这一本能,可以使之成为外国人的重要自保法门,从而使他们能够与一个如此敏感、如此固执又如此守旧的民族打交道。外国人所要做的,只需模仿中国人的方式,把一切都看作是理所当然的,装着好像那些没有明令禁止的权利是存在的,当这些权利受到攻击时,全力为其辩护,并且想方设法坚持它。因此,在内地和其他城市的外国人的居住权问题,只要像在北京的外国人一样明智地采取一种墨守成规的处理方式,就不会有什么事,聪明的保守主义就是最安全的防护。险恶的暗礁对于航船,似乎是一种难以逾越的障碍,可一旦穿越它,便可进入一片神秘而又平静的环礁湖,再也不用担心风暴和海浪了。
英文原文:
CHAPTER XIV. CONSERVATISM
IT is true of the Chinese, to a greater degree than of any other nation in history, that their Golden Age is in the past. The sages of antiquity themselves spoke with the deepest reverence of more ancient "ancients." Confucius declared that he was not an originator, but a transmitter. It was his mission to gather up what had once been known, but long neglected or misunderstood. It was his painstaking fidelity in accomplishing this task, as well as the high ability which he brought to it, that gave the Master his extraordinary hold upon the people of his race. It is his relation to the past, as much as the quality of what he taught, that constitutes the claim of Confucius to the front rank of holy men. It is the Confucian theory of morals that a good ruler will make a good people. The prince is the dish, the people are the water ; if the dish is round, the water is round, if the dish is square, the water will be square also. Upon this theory, it is not strange that all the virtues are believed to have flourished in the days when model rulers existed. The most ignorant coolie will upon occasion remind us that in the days of Yao and Shun there was no necessity for closing the doors at night, for there were no thieves ; and that if an article was lost on the highway it was the duty of the first comer to stand as a guard over it until the next one happened along, who took his turn until the owner arrived, who always found his property perfectly intact. It is a common saying that the present is inferior to the past in benevolence and justice ; but in violations of conscience the past cannot compete with the present.
This tendency to depreciate the present time is by no means confined to China or to the Chinese, yet in this empire it seems to have attained a sincerity of conviction not elsewhere equalled. All that is best in the ancient days is believed to have survived in the literature to which the present day is the heir, and it is for this reason that this literature is regarded with such idolatry. The orthodox Chinese view of the Classics appears to be much the same as the orthodox Christian view of the Hebrew Scriptures; they are supposed to contain all that is highest and best of the wisdom of the past, and all that is equally adapted to the present time and to the days of old. That anything is needed to supplement the Classics is not believed by a good Confucianist, any more than it would be believed by a good Christian that supplementary additions to the Bible are desirable. When a thing is as good as it can be, it is idle to try to make it better.
Just as many good Christians make some Bible text a pretext for something which the biblical writers never had in mind, so Confucian scholars are able to find in the old masters authority for all modern proceedings, and even the real roots of ancient mathematics and modern science. The literature of antiquity has moulded the Chinese nation, and produced a system of government which has proved its persistence. Since self-preservation is the first law of nations as of individuals, it is not singular that a form of rule so long enduring should be revered. It would be a curious discovery if we could trace the processes by which this government came to be. There have been few interior revolutions in China. The Chinese government is like a cube: when overturned, it falls upon another face, yet remains essentially unchanged. Repeated experience has taught the people this truth, and they believe firmly in the wisdom of their ancient institutions. To suggest improvements is heresy. Hence the deep-rooted adherence to old ways.
To the Chinese, manners and morals are inseparable. An invasion of customs is an invasion of what is most sacred. Customs, like language, once fixed, resist change. Though local dialects and varying customs exist across the realm, old traditions endure. A striking example is the Manchu tonsure imposed upon the Chinese. At first fiercely resisted, over time the queue became a source of national pride, and resentment lingered only in regions where turbans were worn to hide the imposed hairstyle. Buddhism, once fiercely opposed, also became thoroughly assimilated into Chinese life.
In China, long-established usage is followed blindly. Millions observe religious rites with little personal faith, merely because tradition demands it. When asked the reason for a ritual, the common answers are that it was handed down by the ancients, or that everyone follows it. The machinery of tradition moves the people, not the other way around. A Mongolian custom of offering snuff illustrates this well: if the snuff-box is empty, people still pretend to take snuff to preserve etiquette and save face. Many Chinese social practices follow this same pattern— the form remains even when the original spirit is gone.
Blind adherence to precedent is widespread. A cook may copy a spoiled egg from an old recipe into a new pudding simply because the original cook did so. A tailor will patch a new garment because the sample garment had a patch. Such imitation is common across trades and daily life. The whole empire follows a fixed schedule for putting away winter furs and wearing straw hats, regardless of local weather. Innkeepers will refuse to heat the k'ang (brick bed) even during sudden cold snaps if the proper season has not arrived. Artisans resist new methods fiercely. One brick-maker refused to use a new mould, claiming no such tool existed under heaven.
In the last quarter of the nineteenth century, China faced many new ideas and innovations. The nation was forced to confront modern developments with ancient traditions. New wine cannot easily be poured into old wine-skins, and the Chinese have accepted few new ways. China’s attitude toward progress is one of procrastination: there is little desire for the new, and no willingness to abandon the old. Old customs, superstitions and beliefs linger, propped up just as dilapidated mud huts stand for years. As the saying goes, "If the old does not go, the new does not come." Change in China is often long delayed, but may happen suddenly when it arrives.
Telegraphs were once fiercely opposed by local officials who claimed the people would not tolerate them. Yet when war loomed, telegraph lines were quickly erected. Feng-shui (geomancy) was long thought to block railway construction. But when the first railway was built through a cemetery to transport coal, people saw steam power overcome traditional geomantic fears. Superstitions about feng-shui lost much of their power against practical modern needs.
Conflict between ancient rules and practical needs is also visible in official life. For example, the rule that officials must retire to observe mourning for a parent was repeatedly set aside for powerful statesmen when national affairs demanded their service. The hierarchy of father and son, and emperor and subject, is deeply entrenched, yet special arrangements are made when a reigning emperor’s father is still alive. Such compromises show that while tradition is revered, exceptions exist for powerful figures.
China’s conservatism can be an asset for foreigners. By respecting established rights and customs, one can navigate life in the empire safely. Follow precedent, assume existing privileges will be respected, and defend them carefully. This approach has worked for foreign residence rights in Peking and the Chinese interior. The reef of conservatism, once penetrated, becomes a peaceful lagoon for those who understand it.
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